Glossary
Each term is linked to the Wikipedia page for the term. All definitions are given within the scope of animal behaviour.
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Term |
Definition |
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How common a certain species is within an ecosystem |
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A trait that increases an animal's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment |
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One of a number of possible variants of a gene |
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Social grooming between members of the same species |
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Behaviour that benefits another individual while being costly to the individual performing the behaviour |
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analogous trait |
A trait that appears in multiple species, with the same form or function, but which was not present in the last common ancestor of the species |
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The merging of sex cells of different sizes (e.g. small sperm and large egg) during sexual reproduction |
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The attribution of human traits to animals |
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A warning signal: bright colours, obvious to predators, indicating that the prey is unpalatable or poisonous |
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Coevolution in which two organisms are evolving to counter the traits evolved by the other; an "arms race" (e.g. hosts and parasites) |
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The use of selective breeding (controlling who mates with who) to enhance particular traits. Analogous to natural selection |
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In acoustics, a measure of how the energy of sound decreases as it propagates through air or other media |
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The influence that a passive observer has on an animal performing a specific behaviour |
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The idea that females should be choosier than males and thus have lower variance in reproductive success because eggs cost more to produce than sperm |
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behaviour |
The internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli (Following: Levitis et al. 2009, Animal Behaviour 78:103–10) |
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The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behaviour |
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bi-parental |
Concerning two parents |
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blocking |
When an animal is prevented from responding to a stimulus by an existing association between another stimulus and response |
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An animal that manipulates other individuals into providing care for its offspring |
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caste |
A subset of individuals within a eusocial colony that are specialised for a particular function (e.g. ant and bee workers) |
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A learning process in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit an innate response, following repeated associations between the neutral stimulus and a stimulus that normally elicits the response |
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coefficient of relatedness (r) |
A measure between 0 and 1 of how close two individuals are genetically: 0 = no shared genes; 1 = all genes identical |
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Information transfer between a signaller and receiver that influences the behaviour of the receiver |
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comparative approach |
Testing predictions by comparing traits across populations or species |
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A contest between multiple animals over resources, in which the winner reduces the ability of the loser to use the resource |
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conditional strategy |
A behavioural strategy that an animal only adopts under certain conditions. |
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conditioned response |
In classical conditioning, the response to a conditioned stimulus when it is presented alone |
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conditioned stimulus |
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus through close association |
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conspecific |
Another animal of the same species |
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An observation or experiment performed for the purpose of comparison against a treatment of interest |
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The evolution of similar traits independently across different lineages |
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The process of groups of animals working together for mutual benefit |
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A social system characterised by alloparental care, i.e. "helpers" as well as parents contributing to offspring care |
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An experiment in which offspring are removed from their biological parents at birth and raised by foster parents, usually to measure contribution of the rearing environment to traits |
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The ability of an animal to avoid detection by other animals, often as a defence against predators |
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Behavioural traits that are transmitted socially across generations within a particular group |
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The tendency for familiar territorial neighbours to be less aggressive to each other than to unfamiliar neighbours |
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dilution effect |
The reduction of individual predation risk that occurs as the number of individuals increases |
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direct fitness |
Fitness gained from reproducing and leaving direct descendants |
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disperse |
To move away from the natal territory |
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distribution |
The area in which an animal is found (also ‘range’) |
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A social ranking of individuals that arises when animals compete for a shared resource |
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eavesdropping |
When a signal is detected by an unintended receiver, which then uses the information for its own benefit |
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The branch of biology dealing with how organisms interact with one another and their environment |
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Empirical research involves testing hypotheses on data produced by experiments or observations |
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All living and non-living things that an animal interacts with |
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A catalogue of behaviours exhibited by an animal, usually objective and mutually exclusive |
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Complex sociality involving division of labour, cooperate offspring care, and overlapping generations of adults |
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Change in the heritable traits of biological populations over successive generations. On the small scale, this means changes in gene frequency in a population; on the large scale, it means the descent of different species from a common ancestor |
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A behavioural strategy that cannot be invaded by a mutant strategy if it is adopted by all members of a population |
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extinction curve |
Describes how long an animal will remember an association after it stops being reinforced |
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extra-pair copulation |
Mating that occurs outside of a stable pair bond |
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facultative |
Optional or discretionary, e.g. a facultative cooperative breeder sometimes has helpers providing care and sometimes doesn't |
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The ability of a female to produce offspring |
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The fusion of gametes (sex cells), beginning the development of a new organism |
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The contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation |
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flight initiation distance |
The distance at which prey flee from a predator |
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Searching for food resources, and associated behaviours |
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free-rider |
An individual that benefits from the behaviour of others, without contributing anything in return |
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When selection on particular phenotypes depends on the relative frequency of that phenotype in the population |
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A mathematical framework used to study the payoffs of different behaviours given their benefits, costs, and the decisions of other individuals |
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A specialised sex cell that fuses with another gamete to initiate the development of a new organism |
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A region of the genetic code (DNA) that encodes function. Transmission of genes from parents to offspring is how traits are inherited |
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Differences in gene frequency between individuals |
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All the genetic material of an organism |
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The part of an organism’s genetic makeup that determines its phenotype |
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A host-specific lineage of a brood parasite species (plural gentes) |
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The carrying of an embryo or foetus inside a female that gives birth to live young |
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The hypothesis that females choose males based on their perceived genetic quality, for indirect benefits |
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An allele that produces a recognisable trait, allowing other individuals to recognise fellow carriers of the allele and give them preferential treatment |
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The ecological or environmental region inhabited by a particular species |
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habituation |
The tendency to respond less strongly to a given stimulus after repeated exposure |
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Genes for an altruistic behaviour should increase in frequency when rB - C > 0, where r is the coefficient of relatedness, B is the reproductive benefit to the receiver and C is the reproductive cost to the individual performing the act |
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The idea that honest signalling can be maintained through costly signals that are relatively less costly to dishonest signallers |
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A model of a contest between two individuals, with an aggressive strategy (Hawk) and peaceful strategy (Dove) that reach a stable mixed equilibrium because both are more successful when rare |
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helpers |
Individuals in a cooperative species that contribute to the care of individuals other than their own |
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herbivore |
An animal that feeds on (only) plants |
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The amount of variation in a trait that is due to variation in genetic factors. More broadly, any phenotypic variation attributable to shared descent. |
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heterospecific |
An animal belonging to a different species |
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home range |
A distinct area within which a particular animal spends most of its time |
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homologous traits |
Traits shared due to common ancestry |
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A signal that benefits both signaller and receiver |
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The insect taxon that includes ants, bees and wasps |
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Reproduction between animals of different species |
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A mathematical model to explain how animals forage across an environment of patches with different amounts of resources |
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Rapid learning that happens during a particular period |
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Reproduction between genetically similar individuals, often resulting in genetic disorders |
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Fitness gained by boosting the reproduction of related individuals |
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The replication of a behaviour by another individual that previously observed the behaviour |
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index signal |
A signal that is honest because it is directly linked to a physical trait |
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The killing of immature offspring by an adult of its own species |
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Unlearned or innate behaviour |
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insight learning |
Solving a novel problem immediately, without trial-and-error |
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The effect than an animal has on another |
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inter-specific |
Between different species |
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intra-specific |
Within the same species |
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kin |
Relatives |
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The ability to distinguish related individuals from unrelated individuals |
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Selection on characteristics that increase the reproductive success of relatives |
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Stealing of food or other resources from another animal |
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learning |
The act of acquiring new information, skills, or preferences, or modifying existing ones |
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An area where males aggregate to engage in competitive displays and be chosen by females for matings |
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The changes undergone by an organism during its lifetime, and their timing |
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local resource competition |
When the presence of other individuals leads to competition that reduces the resources available to each |
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local resource enhancement |
When the presence of other individuals leads to cooperation that increases the resources available to each |
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mate guarding |
Male behaviour intended to prevent their mate from subsequently mating with another male |
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Long-distance movement of animals, often on a seasonal basis |
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An adaptation in which an animal resembles another animal or object, often to reduce predation risk |
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A cooperative attack on a potential predator, usually to protect offspring |
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monogamy |
A mating system in which one male forms a stable pair with one female. Monogamy can be sexual (mating exclusively together), social (rearing offspring together), or both. |
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morphology |
The form and structure of an animal |
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An interaction between two individuals (within or between species) that benefits both |
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The differential survival and reproduction of individuals attributable to differences in phenotype. Over time, this leads to evolution: changes in the heritable traits within a population. |
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normal (data) |
Observations follow a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution |
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A resource exchanged between sexes during courtship |
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obligate |
Restricted to a particular mode of behaviour, e.g. obligate cooperative breeders never breed successfully as pairs |
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Relating to the sense of smell |
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An animal that feeds on both plants and animals, and potentially other taxa as well |
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The process of development, from fertilization of the egg to the mature adult form |
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A form of learning in which an action is reinforced through reward or punishment |
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A collection of mathematical models that predict animal foraging decisions under different contexts |
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An optimal foraging model that describes the behaviour of an individual foraging in a patchy environment |
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Any single contiguous living thing, such as an individual animal |
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A strategy in which offspring are provided with resources by their parents to enhance their fitness |
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Resources expended by parents in offspring at a cost to other components of fitness |
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Disagreement between parents and offspring about the amount of care parents should provide to offspring |
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Pavlovian conditioning |
See classical conditioning |
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An animal’s observable traits, resulting from both genetic and environmental influences |
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Any secreted or excreted chemical factor that elicits a response in members of the same species |
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Remaining in the natal territory; not dispersing |
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The study of how living systems function |
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polyandry |
A mating system in which one female mates with multiple males |
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polygenic trait |
A trait influenced by multiple genes |
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A mating system in which two or more males have an exclusive sexual relationship with two or more females |
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polygyny |
A mating system in which one males mates with multiple females |
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A game-theoretical model demonstrating why individuals might not cooperate despite it apparently being favourable to do so |
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proximate explanation |
An answer focused on causation, through immediate physiological or environmental factors |
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queen |
A reproductive female caste in a eusocial species |
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A mechanism to explain cooperation in which altruistic behaviour towards others is returned during future interactions |
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In communication, any individual that detects a signal from a signaller |
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The biological process by which new animals are produced by their parents |
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Something that is required by an animal to develop, survive or reproduce, and is in limited supply |
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A model in which individuals move towards the centre of a group to reduce their “zone of danger”, the area in which they will be targeted by a predator |
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sensory exploitation |
Producing signals that benefit the signaller by activating existing receiver sensory systems from other contexts |
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sex role reversal |
Occurs when females are the competitive sex and males the choosy sex |
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Disagreement between males and females over the optimal investment of each in reproduction |
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The production of a new organism by the fusion of two specialised sex cells to form a zygote with genes from both |
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Selection on the ability to obtain a mate |
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During communication, the individual producing the signal |
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siblicide |
The act of killing a sibling |
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sibling conflict |
Disagreement between siblings over how the resources parents bring should be divided |
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The process that determines which male's sperm fertilises a female's egg when both have the opportunity to do so |
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A mass containing sperm that is transferred to the female during reproduction. They may also contain nutrients that benefit females |
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The process by which reproductively isolated populations diverge to become separate species |
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A group of animals capable of interbreeding with each other and producing fertile offspring |
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A distinct area and its associated resources that are defended by an animal from use by other individuals |
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theoretical approach |
Generating a predictive (usually mathematical) model |
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Four complementary categories of explanations for behaviour: development, evolution, mechanism, function |
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When interacting with an individual over several rounds, the strategy of copying what your partner did on the previous round |
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trial-and-error learning |
Learning by making repeated, varied attempts at a problem until the solution is found |
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ultimate explanation |
An answer focused on the historical (evolutionary) reason behind a behaviour |
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unconditioned stimulus |
A stimulus that evokes an unlearned response |
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Any animal possessing a spine (e.g. fish, mammals, birds, lizards) |
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A particular set of movements performed by forager bees that communicate the location of food resources |
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A caste of non-reproductive individuals in eusocial species |
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Behaviour in which workers in eusocial species destroy eggs not laid by the queen |