| Term | Definition |
| "All Under Heaven" 天下 (Tiānxià) | denotes entire geographical and mortal world. Here, refers to heavenly investiture of political sovereignty of emperor over a unified China |
| "Chinese" person 漢人 (Han ren) | a term referring to someone who was ethnically Chinese in contrast to the "barbarian," northern tribes |
| Achilles | A Greek Hero who was part of the Trojan War. He was a central figure in Homer's Illiad. |
| Antiquity 古 (gǔ) | literally ancient times; also refers to concept in a view of history that defines some flourishing of sagely rule in harmony with the universe in the distant past, and contrasts the recent history leading up to the historical present accordingly |
| aristocratic 貴族 (guizu) | belonging to a social class of political and social privilege and wealth that are handed down hereditarily |
| August Thearch 皇帝 (Huángdì) | see "Emperor" below |
| Beijing 北京 (Běijīng) | lit. "Northern Capital"; known by many names throughout history, including Fanyang (範陽, Fanyang) during the Han Dynasty (漢朝, 206 BCE-220 CE), Tang Dynasty (唐朝, Tang chao, 618-907 CE); Yan (燕, Yan) or Yanjing (燕京, Yanjing) during the Warring States Period (戰國時代, Zhanguo shidai, 475-221 BCE), mid Tang Dynasty (唐朝, Tang chao, 618-907 CE), and Liao Dynasty (遼潮, 907-1125 CE); Zhongdu (中都, Zhongdu) during the Jin Dynasty (金潮, Jin chao, 1115-1234 CE); Dadu (大都, Dadu) during the Yuan Dynasty (元朝, Yuan chao, 1271-1368 CE); and Beiping (北平, Beiping) in the early Ming Dynasty (明朝, Ming chao, 1368-1644 CE) and Republican Period (民國, Minguo, 1912-1949). Located at the northern tip of the North China Plain (華北平原, Huabei pingyuan) and to the northwest of the Bohai Sea (渤海, Bohai) |
| Bendi ren 本地人 (Běndì rén) | The local people in the south of China. Tensions rose between them and the Hakka. |
| Bodhisattva 菩薩 (púsà) | A being who postpones his or her own ultimate enlightenment for the sake of saving all sentient beings |
| body 體 (tǐ) | The physical body |
| Book of Songs 詩經 (Shījīng) | also known as the Book of Odes or the Classic of Poetry, it is considered one of the Five Classics (五經, Wǔjīng) traditionally believed to be composed by Confucius. Scholars have studied and memorized it for two thousand years |
| Bronze Age | Bronze Age in China dates to ca. 2000 - 1400 BCE. It was marked by the advent of writing, metal-working, urbanization, class stratification, as well as a stable hierarchy administering a large area. |
| Budai 布袋 (Bùdài) | a benevolent monk in popular legend who becomes conflated with Maitreya in the image of the happy Buddha, literally it means "cloth bag" |
| Buddha 佛 (Fó) | A transcendent being who is completely enlightened, a god |
| calligraphy 書法 (shūfǎ) | the art of brush-writing |
| Celestial Masters 天師道 (Tiān shīdào) | a Daoist religious group that received sacred teachings through revelations and promoted a way to achieve immortality |
| Chang'an 長安 (Cháng'ān) | capital city of Tang, located in North-Central China and known today as Xian (西安, Xian) |
| Chu 楚 (Chǔ) | c.1030 BCE-223 BCE |
| chujia 出家 (chūjiā) | To leave one's home and become a monk or nun |
| Confucian Classics 五經 (Wǔjīng) | Also known as the Five Classics. Consisting of: (1) The Classic of Poetry also known as the Book of Songs or the Book of Odes 詩經 (Shijing), (2) Book of Documents 尚書 (Shangshu), (3) Book of Rites 禮記 (Liji), (4) I Ching also known as the Book of Change 易經 (Yijing), and (5) Spring and Autumn Annals 春秋 (Chunqiu). Please see the Short on the Five Classics. |
| Confucian magnate | result of deterioration of government and state withdrawal from society. Descendants of officials seeing themselves as spokesmen for a moral society; claimed to be both "Confucians" (儒, rú) and "gentlemen" (士, shì). Played various roles in Later Han (25-220 CE), including local government, security and disaster relief, and agricultural developers |
| Confucianism 儒學 (Rúxué) | The way of learning that was first discussed by Confucius in the Analects 論語 (Lunyu) and promoted in one form or another by his many admirers through history. Generally speaking, Confucianism was concerned with making government serve moral purposes, the role of the individual and the family in society, and justice. |
| Confucius 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ) | circa 551-479 BCE, China's first moral philosopher. |
| Cosmic Resonance Theory 感應 (Gǎnyìng) | literally "stimulus-response". Also "mutual influence between like things (物類相應, wùlèi xiāngyìng; or 物類相感, wùlèi xiānggǎn)." Idea that through the fundamental workings of the universe, spatially sepatate actions may exert an influence on one another. Held (1) nature as an organic process; (2) correlative cosmology; (3) stimulation and response between things of a kind; and (4) interaction between parallel realms of heaven and man. First appeared in 3rd century BCE |
| Crossbow 弩 (nǔ) | crossbow. Incorporates easily mass-produced iron bolts for longer-range, high-accuracy shooting. Here, indicates the mass military, mass production capacity of Qin, as well as its technical superiority over other states |
| Cultural Revolution 文化大革命 (Wénhuà dàgémìng) | (1966-1976) A massive movement, institigated by Mao Zedong, that attacked much of the leadership of the Communist Party and called for the destruction of traditional modes of behavior and thought. After Mao's death, his wife Jiang Qing and her associates known as the Gang of Four were held responsible for the worse excesses of the Cultural Revolution. |
| Dao 道 (Dào) | The Way, The Path |
| Dao'an 道安 (Dào'ān) | 312-385; Buddhist monk and disciple of Fotudeng, known for building the Chinese sangha |
| Daoism 道家 (Dàojiā) | The term "Daoism" (Dàojiā) emerged around Western Han dynasty (206 - 9 BCE); it groups together figures like Zhuangzi and Laozi and the texts attributed to them. |
| Daoist philosophy 道家 (Dàojiā) | The philosophy of early Daoist thinkers such as Laozi and Zhuangzi |
| Daoist religion 道教 (Dàojiào) | The organized religion of Daoism centered around revelations from the immortals |
| Dharma 法 (Fǎ) | The law or teachings of Buddhism |
| Di 帝 （Dì） / Shangdi 上帝 (Shàngdì) | High god. The highest deity in the Shang religious system. |
| Ding 鼎 (dǐng) | A circular or rectangular tripod vessel (eg: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/203985). Ding vessels were originally used to cook meat in sacrificial rituals, and were important symbols of power. |
| Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (Dǒng Zhòngshū) | 179-104 BCE. Han Dynasty cosmic resonance and statecraft scholar who worked to promote the idea that a set of ancient "classics (經, jīng)" could provide the model for the present, and thereby that there were higher standards to which emperors should hold themselves in rule |
| Duke of Zhou 周 公 (Zhōu Gōng) | ideal minister who helped create a Golden Age at the beginning of the Zhōu Dynasty (周), He was the regent for King Cheng (King Wu's young and orphaned son). He is said to have tirelessly served the child king without any ambition to usurp the throne. He was later idealized as the model minister. |
| Dynasty 朝代 (Cháodài) | A temporal period during which one family controls the throne, the name of the country, the territorial extent of that country, and the administrative apparatus that governed it. |
| Eastern Han 東漢 (Dōng Hàn) | 25-220 CE. Also known as Later Han (後漢, Hòu Hàn) |
| elixir 丹 (dān) | a drink that can be skillfully taken in order to achieve immortality |
| Emperor Guangwu 光武帝 (Guāng Wǔdì) | 5 BCE- 57 CE. A relative of the Han royal family, he restored the Han dynasty after the end of Wang Mang's short lived Xin Dynasty, founding the Eastern Han. His given name was Liu Xiu 劉秀 (Liú Xiù) |
| Emperor Guangwu 光武帝 (Guāngwǔdì) | 5 BCE-57 CE; r.25-57 CE. Personal name Liu Xiu (劉秀, Liú Xiù); founder of Eastern Han. |
| Emperor Jing 漢景帝 (Hàn Jǐngdì) | r.157-141 BCE. Personal name Liu Qi (劉啟, Liú Qǐ). Consolidated central power during the Rebellion of the Seven States |
| Emperor Wu of the Liang 梁武帝 (Liang Wu di) | 464-549; Xiao Yan 蕭衍, the first emperor of the Liang dynasty, reigned from 502-549 |
| Emperor Wu 漢武帝 (Hàn Wǔdì) | 156-87 BCE. After becoming emperor he strengthened the Han governmental apparatus, curbed the power of the aristocracy and expanded Han's territory |
| Emperor Zhao 漢昭帝 (Hàn Zhāodì) | r. 87-74 BCE. Given name Liu Fuling (劉弗陵, Liú Fúlíng). Youngest son of Emperor Wu; student of Huo Guang. Reign saw the Salt and Iron Debate (鹽鐵論, Yán tiě lùn) between central government ministers and literati on the economic and military policies of the reign of Emperor Wu (漢武帝, Hàn Wǔdì) |
| Emperor 皇帝 (Huángdì) | term originates with First Emperor of Qin to describe the new form of political sovereignty invested in the ruler. Combination of terms "august" or "lord on high" (皇, huáng) and "high god" (帝, dì) to form a term with political and religious/cosmological implications. Title referring to the sovereign of Imperial China. |
| Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧太后 (Cíxǐ tàihòu) | 1835 – 1908. A Manchu concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor; when her son became emperor she gained power and unofficially controlled China from 1861 to her death. |
| Empress Dowager 皇太后 (Huáng tàihòu) also known as 太后 (Tàihòu) | Title given to the mother of an emperor. |
| Empress Lü 呂后 (Lühou) | 241-180 BCE. Empress consort of Liu Bang (Emperor Gāozǔ, 漢高祖, r. 202-195 BCE), became Empress Dowager (皇太后, Huáng tàihòu) with the ascension of her son Emperor Hui (漢惠帝, Hàn Huìdì, r.195-188 BCE) to the throne, then Grand Empress Dowager (太皇太后, Tài huáng tàihòu) with ascension of his successors Liu Gong (Emperor Qiánshǎo, 漢前少帝, r.188-184 BCE) and Liu Hong (Emperor Hòushǎo, 漢後少帝, r.184-180 BCE). As Empress Dowager and Grand Empress Dowager she gained control of the empire and promoted her family's interests. Because men of imperial lineage were regularly sent out of the capital and kept out of court politics, male relatives of empresses and dowager emperesses often became influential in court |
| Empress Wang [Ping] 王皇后 (Wáng Huánghòu) | 8 BCE-23 CE. Daughter of Wang Mang. |
| emptiness 空 (kōng) | the nature of conditioned reality which lacks a nature of its own; the lack of conditions and desires |
| Examination System 科舉制度 (Kējǔ zhìdù) | A civil service recruitment system based on written examinations. |
| Expedient Means 方便 (Fāngbiàn) | A doctrine that says the Buddha's truth should be taught at a level at which people can understand |
| Feudal System 封建 (fēngjiàn) | here, refers to the system of political and territorial organization term in use during the Zhou Dynasty (周, Zhōu, 1046 BCE-256 BCE). Marked by decentralized rule accomplished via enfoeffment of large hereditary estates to allies and relatives of founding kings of Zhou, creating a polity composed of multiple independent feudal states |
| First Emperor [of Qin] 秦始皇 (Qín Shǐhuáng) | r.221 BCE-210 BCE. Had previously ruled state of Qin from 247 BCE-221 BCE. Called himself Shihuangdi (始皇帝, Shǐhuángdì, First Emperor); unified China with the creation of the Qin Dynasty (秦朝, Qín cháo). Tried to impose uniformity by creating a single currency, unit of measurement, axel rod length, writing script, etc. |
| Five Phases 五行 (Wŭxíng) | Natural philosophy that emerged during the Warring States period envisioning nature as moving through five predictable phases. fire (火, huǒ), water (水, shuǐ), earth (土, tǔ), metal (金, jīn), and wood (木, mù). Used to describe interactions among phenomena; accomplish transformation of natural world as run by heaven (天, tian) as a god to something run along constant and predictable natural principles of change |
| Fotudeng 佛圖澄 (Fútúchéng) | (c. 231-349); a Buddhist wizard and teacher in northern China, from Kucha |
| Four Noble Truths | Four core teachings of Buddhism; (1) Life is suffering, (2) Suffering comes from desires, (3) our desires must be extinguished, (4) there is a Path to end all desires |
| Gobi Desert 戈壁 (Gēbì) | The large Asian desert bounded in the north by the Mongolian steppe and the Altai Mountains (阿爾泰山脈, A'ertai shanmai), to the southwest by the Hexi Corridor (河西走廊, Hexi zoulang; also known as the Gansu Corridor) and the Tibetan Plateau (青藏高原, Qingzang gaoyuan), and to the southeast by the North China Plain (華北平原, Huabei pingyuan) |
| Gongsun Long 公孫龍 （Gōngsūn Lóng） | fl. ca. 300 BCE A member of the School of Names (名家 Míngjiā). He is known for his paradox "A white horse is not a horse." (白馬非馬 bái mǎ fēi mǎ) |
| Great Wall of China 長城 (Chángchéng) | The Great Wall is a series of walls and fortifications built on the northern frontier with the intention of dividing the pastoral and sedentary economies.The earliest portions date back to as early as the 7th century BCE. |
| Greater Vehicle 大乘 (dàchéng) | See "Mahayana" |
| Guanyin 觀音菩薩 (Guānyīn púsà) | The bodhisattva of compassion |
| Guo 國 (guó) | (1) feudal state; (2) centrally-administered state |
| Hakka 客家 (Kèjiā) | Known as "Guest People" later migrants to the south of China who maintained distinct customs and dialect. They were sometimes in conflict with the native local population (bendi ren 本地人). |
| Han Dynasty 漢 (Hàn) | 206 BCE-220 CE |
| Han Feizi 韓非子 （Hán Fēizǐ） | d. 233 BCE Also known as Han Fei (韓非子 Hán Fēi) The text attributed to him, _Hanfeizi_ (韓非子 Hán Fēizǐ ), is thought to be the consummate work of the Legalist tradition. |
| Han People 漢族 (Hànzú) | The term that eventually came to be used for the native population in the area under Chinese administration. |
| Han Xin 韓信 (Hán Xìn) | d.196 BCE. General under Liu Bang during founding of Han. Expert field commander. Considered one of the "Three Heroes of the Early Han Dynasty (漢初三傑, Hànchū sānjié)" |
| Han 漢 (Hàn) | 206 BCE-220 CE |
| Heaven's Mandate 天命 (tiānmìng) | The source of legitimacy according to Zhou ideology. Heaven 天 (Tian), the highest deity in the Zhou pantheon, can bestow this mandate to rule on a dynasty, but can also take it away. Zhou's conquest of Shang was thus justified as a transferring of Heaven's Mandate. |
| Hegemon 霸 (bà) | here, a sovereign ruler with the political and military power to make other states accept this ruler's will |
| hermits 隱者 (yinzhe) | People who objected to serving the state and instead took up residence away from the political center |
| Historical Records 史記 (Shǐjì) | also known as the Records of the Grand Historian. Written by Sima Qian, who in order to finish it chose to be castrated rather than die. Comprising 130 chapters, it includes a chronological narrative of political events, biographies of key individuals as well as treatises on important institutions. Covers around two thousand years of history, starting with the reign of the Yellow Emperor and ending in his own time--the reign of Emperor Wu (漢武帝, Hàn Wǔdì). |
| Homo Erectus | Earlier human species. Appeared in Asia over a million years ago. Peking man is one of the best documented examples. |
| Homo Sapiens | Modern humans. Appeared in Asia around 100,000 years ago. |
| Huainanzi 淮南子 (Huáinánzi) | Western Han Dynasty philosophical work dealing with statecraft and the application of knowledge; compilation of debates among scholars at the court of Liu An (劉安, Liú Ān, King of Huainan) in 2nd century BCE. |
| Hui Shi 惠施 （Huì Shī） | 4th c. BCE A thinker who is part of the School of Names (名家 Míngjiā). He is considered a Sophist or Dialectician and is known for his ten paradoxes about the relativity of time and space. |
| Huiyuan 慧遠 (Huìyuǎn) | 334-416; Chinese monk and disciple of Dao'an who argued for the independence of the sangha |
| Huo Guang 霍光 (Huò Guāng) | d. 68 BCE. Tutor to Emperor Zhao (漢昭帝, Hàn Zhāodì); coregent during early years of Emperor Zhao's reign |
| Immortals 仙人 (xianren) | beings who transcend the mortal world |
| inner alchemy 內丹 (neidan) | self-cultivation through various physical practices from within the body, such as diet, circulating qi, etc. |
| Iron Age | A general modern periodization of early history that comes after the Bronze Age. It is generally considered to encompass late Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. |
| Ji Kang 嵇康 | 223-262 CE; an important literary figure, one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove |
| Jin Dynasty 晉 (Jìn) | A Chinese dynasty from 265 to 420, it is divided between Western Jin and Eastern Jin |
| Junzi 君子 (Jūnzǐ) | Gentleman or Noble man |
| Jurchens 女真 (Nǚzhēn) | The Inhabitants of what would later be called Manchuria in the Northeast of China. They twice invaded China and founded dynasties, the Jin and the Qing. |
| karma 業 (yè) | the "seeds" of cause and effect that we accumulate throughout multiple lives |
| King Wen 文王 （Wénwáng） | The father of King Wu, who strengthened Zhou into a rival of Shang. He was revered as the founding king of Zhou, and later idealized as the model ruler. |
| King Wu 武王 （Wǔwáng） | He led Zhou to conquer and overthrow Shang. |
| King 王 (wáng) | here, a ruler in whom power was invested by a more powerful, suzerain ruler (a ruler subject to the rule of a suzerain) |
| Kumarajiva 鳩摩羅什 (Jiūmóluóshén) | Monk from Kucha, great translator of Mahayana sutras |
| Laozi 老子 （Lǎo Zǐ） | The "Old Master," trad. 6th c. BCE. He is the figure to whom _The Classic of the Way and its Power_ or 道德經 (Dàodéjīng) is attributed to, and was later canonized as a Daoist sage, although his historical reality is murky. |
| Later Zhao 後趙 (Hòuzhào) | 319-351; a dynasty in northern China |
| Law 法 （fǎ） | A key concept for Legalists (法家 Fǎjiā) that is comparable to the modern concept of rule of law. |
| Learning of Mystery 玄學 (xuanxue) | Sometimes also called "Neo-Daoism"; a Daoistic movement focused on the philosophical works of Zhuangzi and Laozi, promoting ideas of naturalness and spontaneity. |
| Legalism 法家 (Fǎjiā) | school of thought that believed strong government was based on establishing effective institutional structures instead of on the moral qualities of its ruler and officials. Emphasized the importance of laws, focusing creating political solutions to disorder and ways to consolidate power |
| Li Ji 李濟 (Lǐ Jì) | (1896-1979) Also known as Li Chi. A Chinese archeologist who was crucial to the discovery of the archeological evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty. He studied anthropology at Harvard University between 1918 to 1923 and acquired his PhD degree there. Later, he became the first director of the department of archeology of the Academia Sinica, the national academy of the Republic of China. He is generally considered to be the founder of archeology as a modern discipline in China. |
| Li Si 李斯 (Lǐ Sī) | c.280 BCE-208 BCE. Legalist scholar and Chief Minister (丞相, chéngxiàng) under the First and Second Emperors of Qin until he was killed by the Second Emperor (秦二世, Qín Èr Shì). Studied under Xunzi (荀子, Xúnzi, c.313 BCE-238 BCE) influential in shaping Qin's policies on conquest, centralization, and state building |
| Li 禮 (lǐ) | see "Ritual" below |
| Lingyin Temple 靈隱寺 (Língyǐn sì) | A Buddhist temple in Hangzhou |
| Liu Bang 劉邦 (Liú Bāng) | 256-195 BCE; r.202-195 BCE. Posthumous name Gaozu (高祖, Gāozǔ). Originally from a modest background, became the founder of the Han Dynasty by defeating main rival, Xiang Yu (項羽, Xiàngyǔ), reunifying China. |
| Liu Ling 劉伶 | died after 265; one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove |
| Liu Xiaowei 劉孝威 | 496-549; a scholar and poet of the Liang dynasty |
| Liu Xiu 劉秀 (Liú Xiù) | see "Emperor Guangwu" |
| Liubo 六博 (Liùbó) | board game played in the Han dynasty. King of Wu's heir was killed when the then crown prince threw this board game at him. |
| Loess | The fine-grained soil blown onto the northern plateau from the Gobi Desert. It gives the Yellow River its distinctive color. |
| Longshan culture 龍山文化 (Lóngshān wénhuà) | Later Neolithic culture in the regions of central China and lower yellow river, 3000-1900 BCE. Named after Longshan, Shandong Province, the town where the remains of the culture were firstly discovered. |
| Luoyang 洛陽 (Luòyáng) | the capitol in the north during many periods of Chinese history |
| Mahayana Buddhism 大乘 (dàchéng) | A later form of Buddhism that emphasized the salvation of all sentient beings through the aide of the Buddha and myriads of bodhisattvas |
| Maitreya 彌勒佛 (Mílè fó) | Buddha of the future |
| Mao Zedong 毛澤東 (Máozédōng) | 1893-1976 CE. Leader of the People's Republic of China from 1949 until his death. |
| Marxist historical progression | view that society developed along a progressive path from primitive to slave to feudal to capitalist to an eventual socialist stage, based on control over the means of production. |
| Mencius 孟子 （Mèngzǐ） | fl. 320 BCE Chinese philosopher who is generally considered a Confucian. |
| Milky Way 德水 (Déshuǐ) | galaxy of stars. Here, refers to the Yellow River (黃河, Huánghé), upon which a cosmological significance was mapped (capital=pole star, river=Milky Way) during the process of constructing a unified ideology for empire. See also "Pole star" below |
| Ming 明 (Míng) Dynasty | (1368–1644 CE). It followed the Yuan dynasty and was succeeded by the Qing dynasty. |
| Mongols 蒙古人 (Ménggǔ rén) | Inner Asian people sharing a common language and existing primarily as various tribes in the early 12th Century, but unified under the Mongol Empire of Temüjin (Chinggis Khan) in the late 12th Century and early 13th Century. Founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271. |
| Monthly ordinances 月令 (Yuè lìng) | instructions, divided up month-by-month and based on the Five Phases (五行, Wŭxíng), for the ruler on what is appropriate to wear, what rituals are to be carried out, what edicts or prohibitions made, etc., in order to keep in harmony with nature and lead the world without issue. Found as the <Monthly Ordinances (月令)> within the <Book of Rites (禮記, Lǐjì)> and other works |
| Mozi 墨子 （Mòzǐ） | late 4th c. BCE (Active 420 BCE) The central figure of the Mohist school. |
| Mutual Responsibility 連坐 (Liánzuò) | also known as "collective punishment." Proposal by Shang Yang (商鞅, Shāng Yāng) under which househlds would be organized into groups in order to prevent both criminal behavior and tax avoidance, and breaking of the law or non-reporting by others in the group would incur collective liability |
| naturlaness 自然 (ziran) | A Daoistic concept of central importance in the Learning of Mystery, justifying non-conformity to social norms on the basis that everything should follow of its own accord. |
| Neolithic period | Archaeological periodization that literally means "new stone age." The beginning of the Neolithic period is generally marked by the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural society, the rise of cities, formation of complex society, and the introduction of metallurgy. The Neolithic period in China is roughly dated from 10,000 to 2000 BCE. |
| New Dynasty 新朝 (Xīncháo) | 9-25 CE. Interregnum between Western and Eastern Han. Wang Mang was a relative of Empress Wang (13 CE) and served as a regent for the reigns of two child emperors before taking the thrown himself and starting the 'New' Dynasty. |
| nirvana 涅槃 (Nièpán) | the cessation of desires and the end of the process of rebirth |
| non-action 無為 （wú wéi ） |
A key concept and technical term in _Daodejing_(道德經 Dàodéjīng). It is a difficult concept, but generally refers to not acting against the natural state. We might emphasize that it does not refer to an absolute absence of action. Translations that try to capture its meaning include " “non-assertive action,” non-coercive action” or “effortless action.” |
| Oracle Bone | Ox scapula (shoulderblade) and turtle plastron (belly shell) used in Shang divination rituals. The records of divination found on oracle bones is the earliest evidence of Chinese writing. |
| outer alchemy 外丹 (waidan) | the practice of transforming base metals |
| Peking Man 北京人 (Běijīng Rén) | A Homo Erectus discovered in the 1920s at Zhoukoudian, near Beijing. |
| Physiographic macroregions | anthropologist G. William Skinner's proposed division of China (excluding Inner Asian territories) into nine areas (Northeast China, North China, Northwest China, Upper Yangtze, Middle Yangtze, Lower Yangtze, Southeast Coast, Lingnan, and Yungui) based on river drainage basins, mountain ranges, and other geographic features affecting ease of movement. |
| Piece-mold casting | A casting technique using mold assembled out of separate pieces. This was the predominant bronze manufacturing technique in Bronze Age China, and the mold pieces are made out of clay. |
| Plato | Greek 5th-4th c. BCE philosopher |
| Plato's Forms or Ideas | The idea that the material world as we recognize it is not the real world, but only an "image" or "shadow" of the real world because our senses are only able to make sense of the world imperfectly. There exists a real, perfect world made up of entities called "forms" or "ideas" that are eternal and changeless which we are unable to recognize. |
| Pole star 天極 (Tiānjí) | star whose apparent position hews close to a celestial pole. Here, refers to the capital of Qin at Xianyang (咸陽, Xiányáng), upon which a cosmological significance was mapped (capital=pole star, river=Milky Way) during the process of constructing a unified ideology for empire. See also "Milky Way" above |
| pure conversation 清談 (qingtan) | A practice of making anecdotes about individuals and capturing the essence of one's character in stories about them |
| pure qi 精 (jing) | one's essence, or pure energy; semen |
| pure 清 (qing) | The value of being pure or uncorrupted |
| qi 氣 | energy, vital breath |
| Qianlong Period 乾隆 (Qiánlóng) | A period of the reign of Qianlong Emperor of the Qing (1735-1796) |
| Qin 秦 (Qín) | 221 BCE-210 BCE. Also known as Qin Dynasty (秦朝, Qín cháo). Unified China into a single state. Was founded by King Zheng who called himself First Emperor (Shǐhuángdì). Ordinary people suffered harsh treatment under the First Emperor's reign. Criticism of the government was forbidden; books were burned and scholars were suppressed |
| Qing 清 (Qīng) Dynasty | 1644-1911 CE Founded by the Manchus. The imperial dynasty in China's history. |
| Rebellion of the Seven States 七國之亂 (Qī guó zhī luàn) | 154 BCE. Also known as Revolt of the Seven States. Led by the King of Wu (nephew of Emperor Gaozu), who was still bitter that his heir was killed by Emperor Jing when he was the crown prince, six other eastern kingdoms also rebelled against the Han. After the rebellion was put down, several kingdoms were reduced in size or even abolished. |
| Ren 仁 (rén) | Humaneness |
| Republic of China 中華民國 (Zhōnghuá Mínguó) | 1912-1949 CE Founded when the last Qing emperor abdicated in 1912 after Yuan Shikai a top general in the Qing army negotiated a compromise by establishing a republic with him as president. |
| Ritual 禮 (lǐ) | broad term encompassing individual rites, social interactions, customary behavior, and the modes of continuous connection with the past that function to provide a historical model for present and future |
| Salt and Iron Debate 鹽鐵論 (Yán tiě lùn) | 81 BCE. Two day debate on state policy during reign of Emperor Zhao of Han |
| Sangha 僧 (sēng) | The community of Buddhist monks and nuns |
| se 色 | a Buddhist term; in Sanskrit, rūpa, the appearance of objects or phenomena |
| Second Emperor [of Qin] 秦二世 (Qín Èrshì) | r.210 BCE-207 BCE. Personal name Huhai (胡亥, Húhài). Younger son of Qin Shihuang |
| Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove 竹林七賢 (Zhulin qi xian) | A mid-fourth century group of exemplary writers, calligraphers, and painters, who are supposed to have embodied the values of naturalness and non-conformity. |
| Sexagenary Cycle 天干地支 (Tiāngān Dìzhī) | A sixty term cycle that consists of 2 characters. The first character is a term from the Heavenly Stems 天干 (Tiangan) a cycle of ten, the second character is from the Earthly Branches 地支 (Dizhi) a cycle of twelve, rotating to generate a total of sixty terms (the least common multiple of the two); then the cycle repeats itself. It is a form of periodization to tell time. |
| Shakyamuni 釋迦牟尼 (Shìjiāmóuní) | A name of the historical Buddhia, meaning "sage of the Shakyas" |
| Shan Tao 山濤 | 205-283; a friend of Xi Kang, and one of the members of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove |
| Shang Yang 商鞅 (Shāng Yāng) | d. 338 BCE. Statesman and thinker assisting Duke Xiao of Qin (秦孝公, Qín Xiào Gōng, 381 BCE-338 BCE) in instituting legal reforms and providing the mobilizing ideological foundation for a new social and political organization under an imperial system |
| Shang 商 (Shāng) Dynasty | 1600-1050 BCE One early Chinese dynasty in the yellow river valley in central China, also known as the Yin dynastly, later overturned by the Zhou dynasty. |
| Shi Hu 石虎 (Shíhǔ) | 295-349; a tribal leader of the Jie minority and warlord of northern China in the Later Zhao dynasty |
| Shi 士 (shì) | man of service, officer |
| Shun 舜 (Shùn) | One of the earlier cultural heroes and sage kings recorded in Confucian classics. Successor to Yao. Despite his humble origin from a poor and malicious family, Shun proved himself to be an extraordinary and virtuous man. Yao married his two daughters to Shun, and selected Shun as his successor. |
| Siddartha Gautama | The historical Buddha of the Gautama family, said to be a son of the king in ancient India or Nepal |
| Sima Qian 司馬遷 (Sīmǎ Qiān) | 145-85 BCE. Han Dynasty historian who wrote Historial Records also known as Records of the Grand Historian. He chose to be castrated rather than die so that he could finish his Magnus Opus: Historical Records. He studied historical records and imperial archives and traveled all over the country to interview and verify sources. He believed he was writing a fact-based objective history |
| Song 宋 (Sòng) Dynasty | 960-1279 CE. It was divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1127 CE) and the Southern Song (1127-1279 CE). In 1279 CE, the Song Dynasty fell under Mongol invasion. It was succeeded by the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE). |
| spirit 神 (shen) | the spirit which can depart from the body |
| Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lü 呂氏春秋 (Lǚ shì chūnqiū) | commissioned c. 239 BCE. Encyclopaedic compendium of ancient Chinese philosophy, culture, and civilization. Described here as an effort to bring together all schools of thought under single umbrella of Cosmic Resonance |
| Spring and Autumn Period 春秋時代 (Chūnqiū shídài) | 770-481 BCE |
| Sui Dynasty 隋 | 589-618; the dynasty the finally reunified China from the north |
| Sunzi 孫子 (Sūnzǐ) | trad. 6th c. BCE, a legendary military strategist and the text attributed to him, _The Art of War_ (孫子兵法Sūn Zǐ Bīng Fǎ) has become a global best-seller in the 20th century. |
| Supreme Purity 上清 (Shangqing) | A new heaven of Daoism revealed to Yang Xi by the immortals at Maoshan |
| Taiping Rebellion 太平天國 (Tàipíng Tiānguó) | 1850-1864 CE. The most influencial peasant uprising that spread over sixteen provinces led by Hong Xiuquan which set its capital in Nanjing. It established its own social policy and bureacracy and heavily weakened Qing's power. |
| Tang 唐 (Táng) Dynasty | 618-907 CE. It was an expansive and cosmopolitan empire. |
| Tao Yuanming 陶淵明 | 365?-427; a great poet known for writing poems on living in seclusion |
| The Jin Dynasty 晉 | 280-420; divided between Western Jin (280-317) which briefly reunified China, and Eastern Jin (317-420) which moved its capital to the south after the invasion in the north |
| The Lotus Sutra 妙法蓮華經 (Miàofǎliánhuá jīng) | The most important Mahayana scripture, which emphasizes that salvation is possible for all sentient beings including lay people |
| The Pearl River 珠江 (Zhūjiāng) | A major river in south China that flows into the South China sea. It is the third largest river (volume-wise) in China. |
| The People's Republic of China 中華人民共和國 (Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó) | 1949- Present. Founded by Mao Zedong and other Chinese Communisty Party leaders. |
| The Perfected 真人 (zhenren) | An exalted kind of immortal |
| The Silk Road 絲綢之路 (Sīchóu zhīlù) | Trade routes across Central Asia from China to Europe. Already in existence during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), it served as a way to connect the East and the West over land at various points in history. Named for the lucrative Silk trade that was carried out through the routes starting in the Han Dynasty. |
| The Southern Dynasties | 420-589; commonly used to refer to the dynasties following the collapse of the Jin in the south: Song (often called "Liu-Song" 劉宋 or "Song dynasty of the Lius" lest it be confused with the later Song dynasty of the Zhao 趙 imperial family), Qi 齊, Liang 粱, and Chen 陳. |
| The Utopians 農家 （Nóngjiā） | 5th c. BCE |
| Theravada Buddhism | A form of Buddhism common to south and southeast Asia in which individual salvation through nirvana is emphasized; this is usually seen as a precursor to Mahayana Buddhism, and sometimes disparagingly called the "Lesser Vehicle" |
| Three Kingdoms 三國 (Sānguó) | 220–280 CE. Period following the end of the Han dynasty when China was divided between the kingdoms of Wei (魏, Wèi), Shu (蜀, Shǔ), and Wu (吳, Wú). Followed by a period of disunity |
| Three Treasures 三寶 (sānbǎo) | The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha |
| Tianxia 天下 (Tiānxià) | see "All Under Heaven" above |
| Tushita Heaven | The heaven where the Buddha of the future waits |
| Uighur (Uyghur) People 維吾爾族 (Wéiwú'ěr zú) | Turkic ethnic group predominantly living in Xinjiang. |
| Wang Mang 王莽 (Wáng Mǎng) | 45 BCE-23 CE. Relative of Empress Wang (13 CE) and served as a regent for the reigns of two child emperors before taking the thrown himself and starting the 'New' Dynasty. |
| Warring States period | 481 - 221 BCE |
| Western Han 西漢 (Xī Hàn) | 206 BCE-9 CE. Dynasty that formed when Liu Bang succeeded in reunifying China after the Qin Dynasty's collapse led to the disintegration of China into multiple kingdoms. It ended when Wang Mang took power and created the 'New' Dynasty. |
| wu li 物理 | The principle of (or behind) things |
| wu se 物色 | The appearance of things in the phenomenal world |
| Wu Zetian 武則天 (Wǔ Zétiān) | c. 625-705 CE; r. 690-705 CE. Also known as Empress Wu. Usurped the throne after Emperor Gaozong's debilitation in 660 and and proclaimed the 'Zhou Dynasty' (周，Zhou, 690-705 CE), ruling as sovereign -- the first female to do so in Chinese history -- until her removal and death in 705 CE |
| Xia 夏 (Xià) Dynasty | The first dynasty of China according to traditional historiography and legends, later succeeded by Shang. But its existence has been doubted by many modern archeologists because of the lack of archeological evidence. |
| Xian 縣 (xiàn) | (1) county; (2) an area of land governed by an appointed official. Here, refers to the "district (縣, xiàn)" administrative system under which Qin divided the country into counties (縣, xiàn) after abolishing fiefs (封, fēng) and the aristocracy |
| Xiang Yu 項羽 (Xiàng Yǔ) | 232–202 BCE. After the collapse of Qin, Xiang Yu controlled a large area of land. He and Liu Bang engaged in a struggle for power until his defeat and suicide. |
| Xiao He 蕭何 (Xiāo Hé) | 257-193 BCE. Served under Liu Bang (later known as Emperor Gaozu) against the Qin and against Xiang Yu, becoming a chancellor after the founding of the Han Dynasty. Logistics expert. Considered one of the "Three Heroes of the early Han Dynasty" (漢初三傑, Hànchū sānjié). |
| Xie An 謝安 | 320-385 CE; a famous general of the Eastern Jin dynasty who saved the south from invasion; there are many anecdotes of pure conversation about him |
| Xie Lingyun 謝靈運 | 385-433; China's first great landscape poet |
| Xiongnu 匈奴 (Xiōngnú) | Nomadic people who resided north of Han dynasty's borders |
| Xu Hui 許翽 | 341-c.370 CE; the younger Mr. Xu, who reportedly achieved immortality by taking an elixir |
| Xunzi 荀子 （Xúnzǐ） | 3rd c. BCE Chinese philosopher who is generally considered a Confucian. |
| Yang Wanli 楊萬里 | 1127-1206; a poet of the Song (960-1279) dynasty |
| Yang Zhu 楊朱 （Yáng Zhū） | 5th c. BCE A thinker famously known for being unwilling to "pluck a hair from his body to benefit the world.” |
| Yang 陽 (yáng) | literally meaning light; is associated with brightness, day time, males, masculine qualities, strength, creativeness, positive energy etc. |
| Yangshao culture 仰韶文化 (Yǎngsháo wénhuà) | Early Neolithic culture in the Yellow River valley region, 5000- 3000 BCE. Named after Yangshao, the village in Hennan Province where the remains of the culture were firstly discovered. |
| Yangyi 楊羲 | 330-386?; Daoist priest who received revelations from the immortals of Supreme Purity |
| Yangzte River 長江 (Chángjiāng) | It is the longest river in China and flows through Shanghai into the East China Sea. |
| Yao 堯 (Yáo) | One of the earlier cultural heroes and sage kings recorded in Confucian classics. He is said to have harmonized the disparate, built government, and invented the calendar. |
| Ye Shi 葉適 (Yè Shì) | 1150—1223 CE. A Chinese Literati thinker from the Song dynasty. |
| Yellow River 黃河 (Húanghé) | second longest river in China. Originates in the Bayan Har Mountatins (巴顏喀拉山, Bayankala shan) in Qinghai Province (青海省, Qinghai sheng) and empties into the Bohai Sea (渤海, Bohai) |
| Yellow Turban Rebellion 黃巾之亂 (Huángjīn zhī luàn) | 184-190 CE. Rebel/religious mass movement to overthrown the Han. Name of rebellion derives from color of head coverings worn by rebels. Suppression of rebellion leaves generals in charge; massacre eunuchs; prolonged failure to restore civil authority. Hastened collapse of Han Dynasty |
| Yin 陰 (yīn) | literally meaning shade; is associated with darkness, night time, females, feminine qualities, weakness, receptiveness, yielding, and negative energy etc. |
| Yinyang 陰陽 (Yīnyáng) | interaction of Yin and Yang (these two complimentary poles) was seen as integral in perpetuating the natural order |
| Yu 禹 (Yǔ) | According to Confucian classics, Shun called upon Yu to control the great flood that happened during that time, and Yu eventually succeeded Shun as the third sage king. Unlike Yao and Shun, who chose unrelated men of worth as their successors, Yu passed down his throne to his own son. Thus began the Xia Dynasty. |
| Yuan 元 (Yuán) Dynasty | 1271-1368 CE. Also known as the Great Yuan (大元, Dayuan). Founded by the Mongols. |
| Zhang Liang 張良 (Zhāng Liáng) | c.250-185 BCE. Tried to kill Qin Shihuang, but failed. Later joined Liu Bang in trying to overthrow Qin and became Liu Bang's advisor. Strategist. Considered one of the "Three Heroes of the Early Han Dynasty (漢初三傑, Hànchū sānjié)" |
| Zhao Gao 趙高 (Zhào Gāo) | d.207. Chief eunuch in Qin. Persuaed Second Emperor of Qin that he should never appear in public. |
| Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (Zhōudūnyí) | 1017-1073 CE Song Dynasty scholar. |
| Zhou 周 (Zhōu) Dynasty | 1046 BC–256 BC. It followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. It was divided into two periods: the Western Zhou (1046 BC- 771 BC) and the Eastern Zhou (770-256 BC). |
| Zhuangzi 莊子 （Zhuāngzǐ） | 368-286 BCE The figure to whom the text _Zhuangzi_ (莊子 Zhuāngzǐ) is attributed to, and was later canonized as a Daoist sage |
| Zou Yan 鄒衍 (Zōu Yǎn) | 305 BCE-240 BCE. Representative thinker of Yin and Yang (陰陽, Yīnyáng). Synthesized Yin and Yang and Five Phases thought |