| Term | Definition |
| Sunzi 孫子 （Sūnzǐ） | trad. 6th c. BCE, a legendary military strategist and the text attributed to him, _The Art of War_ (孫子兵法Sūn Zǐ Bīng Fǎ) has become a global best-seller in the 20th century. |
| Yang Zhu 楊朱 （Yáng Zhū） | 5th c. BCE A thinker famously known for being unwilling to "pluck a hair from his body to benefit the world.” |
| Zou Yan 鄒衍 （Zōu Yǎn） | fl. ca. 250 BCE A thinker who is thought to have created the theory of the Five Phases and Yin-Yang |
| Achilles | A Greek Hero who was part of the Trojan War. He was a central figure in Homer's Illiad. |
| Beijing 北京 (Běijīng) | lit. "Northern Capital"; known by many names throughout history, including Fanyang (範陽, Fanyang) during the Han Dynasty (漢朝, 206 BCE-220 CE), Tang Dynasty (唐朝, Tang chao, 618-907 CE); Yan (燕, Yan) or Yanjing (燕京, Yanjing) during the Warring States Period (戰國時代, Zhanguo shidai, 475-221 BCE), mid Tang Dynasty (唐朝, Tang chao, 618-907 CE), and Liao Dynasty (遼潮, 907-1125 CE); Zhongdu (中都, Zhongdu) during the Jin Dynasty (金潮, Jin chao, 1115-1234 CE); Dadu (大都, Dadu) during the Yuan Dynasty (元朝, Yuan chao, 1271-1368 CE); and Beiping (北平, Beiping) in the early Ming Dynasty (明朝, Ming chao, 1368-1644 CE) and Republican Period (民國, Minguo, 1912-1949). Located at the northern tip of the North China Plain (華北平原, Huabei pingyuan) and to the northwest of the Bohai Sea (渤海, Bohai) |
| Bendi ren 本地人 (Běndì rén) | The local people in the south of China. Tensions rose between them and the Hakka. |
| Bronze Age | Bronze Age in China dates to ca. 2000 - 1400 BCE. It was marked by the advent of writing, metal-working, urbanization, class stratification, as well as a stable hierarchy administering a large area. |
| Chang'an 長安 (Cháng'ān) | capital city of Tang, located in North-Central China and known today as Xian (西安, Xian) |
| Confucian Classics 五經 (Wǔjīng) | Also known as the Five Classics. Consisting of: (1) The Classic of Poetry also known as the Book of Songs or the Book of Odes 詩經 (Shijing), (2) Book of Documents 尚書 (Shangshu), (3) Book of Rites 禮記 (Liji), (4) I Ching also known as the Book of Change 易經 (Yijing), and (5) Spring and Autumn Annals 春秋 (Chunqiu). Please see the Short on the Five Classics. |
| Confucianism 儒學 (Rúxué) | The way of learning that was first discussed by Confucius in the Analects 論語 (Lunyu) and promoted in one form or another by his many admirers through history. Generally speaking, Confucianism was concerned with making government serve moral purposes, the role of the individual and the family in society, and justice. |
| Confucius 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ) | circa 551-479 BCE, China's first moral philosopher. |
| Cultural Revolution 文化大革命 (Wénhuà dàgémìng) | (1966-1976) A massive movement, institigated by Mao Zedong, that attacked much of the leadership of the Communist Party and called for the destruction of traditional modes of behavior and thought. After Mao's death, his wife Jiang Qing and her associates known as the Gang of Four were held responsible for the worse excesses of the Cultural Revolution. |
| Dao 道 (Dào) | The Way, The Path |
| Daoism 道家 (Dàojiā) | The term "Daoism" (Dàojiā) emerged around Western Han dynasty (206 - 9 BCE); it groups together figures like Zhuangzi and Laozi and the texts attributed to them. |
| Di 帝 （Dì） / Shangdi 上帝 (Shàngdì) | High god. The highest deity in the Shang religious system. |
| Ding 鼎 (dǐng) | A circular or rectangular tripod vessel (eg: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/art/203985). Ding vessels were originally used to cook meat in sacrificial rituals, and were important symbols of power. |
| Duke of Zhou 周公 （Zhōugōng） | He was the regent for King Cheng (King Wu's young and orphaned son). He is said to have tirelessly served the child king without any ambition to usurp the throne. He was later idealized as the model minister. |
| Dynasty 朝代 (Cháodài) | A temporal period during which one family controls the throne, the name of the country, the territorial extent of that country, and the administrative apparatus that governed it. |
| Emperor 皇帝 (Huángdì) | Title referring to the sovereign of Imperial China. |
| Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧太后 (Cíxǐ tàihòu) | 1835 – 1908. A Manchu concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor; when her son became emperor she gained power and unofficially controlled China from 1861 to her death. |
| Empress Dowager 皇太后 (Huáng tàihòu) also known as 太后 (Tàihòu) | Title given to the mother of an emperor. |
| Examination System 科舉制度 (Kējǔ zhìdù) | A civil service recruitment system based on written examinations. |
| Five Phases 五行 (wŭxíng) | Natural philosophy that emerged during the Warring States period envisioning nature as moving through five predictable phases. |
| Gobi Desert 戈壁 (Gēbì) | The large Asian desert bounded in the north by the Mongolian steppe and the Altai Mountains (阿爾泰山脈, A'ertai shanmai), to the southwest by the Hexi Corridor (河西走廊, Hexi zoulang; also known as the Gansu Corridor) and the Tibetan Plateau (青藏高原, Qingzang gaoyuan), and to the southeast by the North China Plain (華北平原, Huabei pingyuan) |
| Gongsun Long 公孫龍 （Gōngsūn Lóng） | fl. ca. 300 BCE A member of the School of Names (名家 Míngjiā). He is known for his paradox "A white horse is not a horse." (白馬非馬 bái mǎ fēi mǎ) |
| Great Wall of China 長城 (Chángchéng) | The Great Wall is a series of walls and fortifications built on the northern frontier with the intention of dividing the pastoral and sedentary economies.The earliest portions date back to as early as the 7th century BCE. |
| Hakka 客家 (Kèjiā) | Known as "Guest People" later migrants to the south of China who maintained distinct customs and dialect. They were sometimes in conflict with the native local population (bendi ren 本地人). |
| Han Dynasty 漢 (Hàn) | 206 BCE-220 CE |
| Han Feizi 韓非子 （Hán Fēizǐ） | d. 233 BCE Also known as Han Fei (韓非子 Hán Fēi) The text attributed to him, _Hanfeizi_ (韓非子 Hán Fēizǐ ), is thought to be the consummate work of the Legalist tradition. |
| Han People 漢族 (Hànzú) | The term that eventually came to be used for the native population in the area under Chinese administration. |
| Heaven's Mandate 天命 (tiānmìng) | The source of legitimacy according to Zhou ideology. Heaven 天 (Tian), the highest deity in the Zhou pantheon, can bestow this mandate to rule on a dynasty, but can also take it away. Zhou's conquest of Shang was thus justified as a transferring of Heaven's Mandate. |
| Homo Erectus | Earlier human species. Appeared in Asia over a million years ago. Peking man is one of the best documented examples. |
| Homo Sapiens | Modern humans. Appeared in Asia around 100,000 years ago. |
| Hui Shi 惠施 （Huì Shī） | 4th c. BCE A thinker who is part of the School of Names (名家 Míngjiā). He is considered a Sophist or Dialectician and is known for his ten paradoxes about the relativity of time and space. |
| Iron Age | A general modern periodization of early history that comes after the Bronze Age. It is generally considered to encompass late Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. |
| Junzi 君子 (Jūnzǐ) | Gentleman or Noble man |
| Jurchens 女真 (Nǚzhēn) | The Inhabitants of what would later be called Manchuria in the Northeast of China. They twice invaded China and founded dynasties, the Jin and the Qing. |
| King Wen 文王 （Wénwáng） | The father of King Wu, who strengthened Zhou into a rival of Shang. He was revered as the founding king of Zhou, and later idealized as the model ruler. |
| King Wu 武王 （Wǔwáng） | He led Zhou to conquer and overthrow Shang. |
| Laozi 老子 （Lǎo Zǐ） | The "Old Master," trad. 6th c. BCE. He is the figure to whom _The Classic of the Way and its Power_ or 道德經 (Dàodéjīng) is attributed to, and was later canonized as a Daoist sage, although his historical reality is murky. |
| Law 法 （fǎ） | A key concept for Legalists (法家 Fǎjiā) that is comparable to the modern concept of rule of law. |
| Legalism 法家 （Fǎjiā） | A school of thought that envisions a totalitarian state with strict rewards and punishments according to the rule of law, enforced by an autocratic ruler. |
| Li Ji 李濟 (Lǐ Jì) | (1896-1979) Also known as Li Chi. A Chinese archeologist who was crucial to the discovery of the archeological evidence for the existence of the Shang Dynasty. He studied anthropology at Harvard University between 1918 to 1923 and acquired his PhD degree there. Later, he became the first director of the department of archeology of the Academia Sinica, the national academy of the Republic of China. He is generally considered to be the founder of archeology as a modern discipline in China. |
| Li 禮 (Lǐ) | Ritual |
| Loess | The fine-grained soil blown onto the northern plateau from the Gobi Desert. It gives the Yellow River its distinctive color. |
| Longshan culture 龍山文化 (Lóngshān wénhuà) | Later Neolithic culture in the regions of central China and lower yellow river, 3000-1900 BCE. Named after Longshan, Shandong Province, the town where the remains of the culture were firstly discovered. |
| Mao Zedong 毛澤東 (Máozédōng) | 1893-1976 CE. Leader of the People's Republic of China from 1949 until his death. |
| Marxist historical progression | view that society developed along a progressive path from primitive to slave to feudal to capitalist to an eventual socialist stage, based on control over the means of production. |
| Mencius 孟子 （Mèngzǐ） | fl. 320 BCE Chinese philosopher who is generally considered a Confucian. |
| Ming 明 (Míng) Dynasty | (1368–1644 CE). It followed the Yuan dynasty and was succeeded by the Qing dynasty. |
| Mongols 蒙古人 (Ménggǔ rén) | Inner Asian people sharing a common language and existing primarily as various tribes in the early 12th Century, but unified under the Mongol Empire of Temüjin (Chinggis Khan) in the late 12th Century and early 13th Century. Founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271. |
| Mozi 墨子 （Mòzǐ） | late 4th c. BCE (Active 420 BCE) The central figure of the Mohist school. |
| Neolithic period | Archaeological periodization that literally means "new stone age." The beginning of the Neolithic period is generally marked by the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural society, the rise of cities, formation of complex society, and the introduction of metallurgy. The Neolithic period in China is roughly dated from 10,000 to 2000 BCE. |
| non-action 無為 （wú wéi ） |
A key concept and technical term in _Daodejing_(道德經 Dàodéjīng). It is a difficult concept, but generally refers to not acting against the natural state. We might emphasize that it does not refer to an absolute absence of action. Translations that try to capture its meaning include " “non-assertive action,” non-coercive action” or “effortless action.” |
| Oracle Bone | Ox scapula (shoulderblade) and turtle plastron (belly shell) used in Shang divination rituals. The records of divination found on oracle bones is the earliest evidence of Chinese writing. |
| Peking Man 北京人 (Běijīng Rén) | A Homo Erectus discovered in the 1920s at Zhoukoudian, near Beijing. |
| Physiographic macroregions | anthropologist G. William Skinner's proposed division of China (excluding Inner Asian territories) into nine areas (Northeast China, North China, Northwest China, Upper Yangtze, Middle Yangtze, Lower Yangtze, Southeast Coast, Lingnan, and Yungui) based on river drainage basins, mountain ranges, and other geographic features affecting ease of movement. |
| Piece-mold casting | A casting technique using mold assembled out of separate pieces. This was the predominant bronze manufacturing technique in Bronze Age China, and the mold pieces are made out of clay. |
| Plato | Greek 5th-4th c. BCE philosopher |
| Plato's Forms or Ideas | The idea that the material world as we recognize it is not the real world, but only an "image" or "shadow" of the real world because our senses are only able to make sense of the world imperfectly. There exists a real, perfect world made up of entities called "forms" or "ideas" that are eternal and changeless which we are unable to recognize. |
| Qin 秦 (Qín) Dynasty | 221 BCE- 210 BCE Unified China into a single state at the end of the Warring State Period. Was founded by Yingzheng who called himself First Emperor (Shi huangdi). |
| Qing 清 (Qīng) Dynasty | 1644-1911 CE Founded by the Manchus. The imperial dynasty in China's history. |
| Ren 仁 (rén) | Humaneness |
| Republic of China 中華民國 (Zhōnghuá Mínguó) | 1912-1949 CE Founded when the last Qing emperor abdicated in 1912 after Yuan Shikai a top general in the Qing army negotiated a compromise by establishing a republic with him as president. |
| Sexagenary Cycle 天干地支 (Tiāngān Dìzhī) | A sixty term cycle that consists of 2 characters. The first character is a term from the Heavenly Stems 天干 (Tiangan) a cycle of ten, the second character is from the Earthly Branches 地支 (Dizhi) a cycle of twelve, rotating to generate a total of sixty terms (the least common multiple of the two); then the cycle repeats itself. It is a form of periodization to tell time. |
| Shang 商 (Shāng) Dynasty | 1600-1050 BCE One early Chinese dynasty in the yellow river valley in central China, also known as the Yin dynastly, later overturned by the Zhou dynasty. |
| Shangyang 商鞅 (Shāngyāng) | 390–338 BC Thinker and statesman during the Warring States period. |
| Shi 士 (shì) | man of service, officer |
| Shun 舜 (Shùn) | One of the earlier cultural heroes and sage kings recorded in Confucian classics. Successor to Yao. Despite his humble origin from a poor and malicious family, Shun proved himself to be an extraordinary and virtuous man. Yao married his two daughters to Shun, and selected Shun as his successor. |
| Song 宋 (Sòng) Dynasty | 960-1279 CE. It was divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1127 CE) and the Southern Song (1127-1279 CE). In 1279 CE, the Song Dynasty fell under Mongol invasion. It was succeeded by the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE). |
| Taiping Rebellion 太平天國 (Tàipíng Tiānguó) | 1850-1864 CE. The most influencial peasant uprising that spread over sixteen provinces led by Hong Xiuquan which set its capital in Nanjing. It established its own social policy and bureacracy and heavily weakened Qing's power. |
| Tang 唐 (Táng) Dynasty | 618-907 CE. It was an expansive and cosmopolitan empire. |
| The Pearl River 珠江 (Zhūjiāng) | A major river in south China that flows into the South China sea. It is the third largest river (volume-wise) in China. |
| The People's Republic of China 中華人民共和國 (Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó) | 1949- Present. Founded by Mao Zedong and other Chinese Communisty Party leaders. |
| The Silk Road 絲綢之路 (Sīchóu zhīlù) | Trade routes across Central Asia from China to Europe. Already in existence during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), it served as a way to connect the East and the West over land at various points in history. Named for the lucrative Silk trade that was carried out through the routes starting in the Han Dynasty. |
| The Utopians 農家 （Nóngjiā） | 5th c. BCE |
| Uighur (Uyghur) People 維吾爾族 (Wéiwú'ěr zú) | Turkic ethnic group predominantly living in Xinjiang. |
| Warring States period | 481 - 221 BCE |
| Wu Zetian 武則天 (Wǔ Zétiān) | c. 625-705 CE; r. 690-705 CE. Also known as Empress Wu. Usurped the throne after Emperor Gaozong's debilitation in 660 and and proclaimed the 'Zhou Dynasty' (周，Zhou, 690-705 CE), ruling as sovereign -- the first female to do so in Chinese history -- until her removal and death in 705 CE |
| Xia 夏 (Xià) Dynasty | The first dynasty of China according to traditional historiography and legends, later succeeded by Shang. But its existence has been doubted by many modern archeologists because of the lack of archeological evidence. |
| Xunzi 荀子 (Xúnzi) | 3rd c. BCE Chinese philosopher who is generally considered a Confucian. |
| Xunzi 荀子 （Xúnzǐ） | 3rd c. BCE Chinese philosopher who is generally considered a Confucian. |
| Yangshao culture 仰韶文化 (Yǎngsháo wénhuà) | Early Neolithic culture in the Yellow River valley region, 5000- 3000 BCE. Named after Yangshao, the village in Hennan Province where the remains of the culture were firstly discovered. |
| Yangzte River 長江 (Chángjiāng) | It is the longest river in China and flows through Shanghai into the East China Sea. |
| Yao 堯 (Yáo) | One of the earlier cultural heroes and sage kings recorded in Confucian classics. He is said to have harmonized the disparate, built government, and invented the calendar. |
| Ye Shi 葉適 (Yè Shì) | 1150—1223 CE. A Chinese Literati thinker from the Song dynasty. |
| Yellow River 黃河 (Húanghé) | second longest river in China. Originates in the Bayan Har Mountatins (巴顏喀拉山, Bayankala shan) in Qinghai Province (青海省, Qinghai sheng) and empties into the Bohai Sea (渤海, Bohai) |
| Yu 禹 (Yǔ) | According to Confucian classics, Shun called upon Yu to control the great flood that happened during that time, and Yu eventually succeeded Shun as the third sage king. Unlike Yao and Shun, who chose unrelated men of worth as their successors, Yu passed down his throne to his own son. Thus began the Xia Dynasty. |
| Yuan 元 (Yuán) Dynasty | 1271-1368 CE. Also known as the Great Yuan (大元, Dayuan). Founded by the Mongols. |
| Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (Zhōudūnyí) | 1017-1073 CE Song Dynasty scholar. |
| Zhou 周 (Zhōu) Dynasty | 1046 BC–256 BC. It followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. It was divided into two periods: the Western Zhou (1046 BC- 771 BC) and the Eastern Zhou (770-256 BC). |
| Zhuangzi 莊子 （Zhuāngzǐ） | 368-286 BCE The figure to whom the text _Zhuangzi_ (莊子 Zhuāngzǐ) is attributed to, and was later canonized as a Daoist sage |
| Spring and Autumn Period 春秋時代 (Chūnqiū shídài) | 770-481 BCE |